FINAL BLOG ENTRY

When trying to decide what I found to be the most interesting part of this class, synesthesia jumped right to mind. Synesthesia, which is Greek for “with sensation”, is defined as “a neurologically-based phenomenon in which stimulation of one sensory or cognitive pathway leads to automatic, involuntary experiences in a second sensory or cognitive pathway” (Wikipedia, <http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Synesthesia>.). I found synesthesia to be particularly interesting because the normally separate senses that we have learned about throughout the semester become intertwined and interdependent, leading to intense and unusual combination of senses. There are many different forms of synesthesia and individuals with the same type usually do not have the same experiences. The current count is 54 different forms, including musical notes leading to tastes, tastes leading to temperatures, and touch leading to smells (“Types of Synesthesia”. <http://home.comcast.net/~sean.day/html/types.htm>.). Synesthesia, which affects about 2 to 4 percept of the entire population, is genetic and more prevalent in women than men. (Winter, Michael. (2007). Tampa Tribune. Picture a World Where Senses Collide. <http://proquest.umi.com/pqdweb?index=3&did=1219818081&SrchMode=1&sid=2&Fmt=3&VInst=PROD&VType=PQD&RQT=309&VName=PQD&TS=1209000828&clientId=2335>.) Currently the cause of synesthesia is unknown, but neuroscience provides a promising future in determining its nature.

The most common form of synesthesia is grapheme color, which as we learned in class is when colors are associated with letters and numbers. For instance, for one person the number four may be associated with green, whereas for another person the same number four may be seen with red. Synesthesia is present at birth and is a continuous throughout life. The same letters and numbers are always associated with the same colors. For many, “letters and numbers frequently have genders, personalities and complex interrelationships.” (Winter) Many find this condition to be extremely pleasant and believe that it provides harmony to their lives. Marcia Smilack, who is a bidirectional synesthete so she hears what she sees and sees what she hears, claims, “It’s important that I convey to others the many layers of the experience, that although it may sound overwhelming, every shape and texture and color that I see fits in perfectly with the environment. Everything is precisely where it should be. Nothing is disjointed. It’s all harmony. Everything is connected.” (Winter) For others, however, the experience can be extremely distracting, interfering with everyday activities. For instance, James Wannerton who has lexical-gustatory synesthesia, which means that sounds and words are associated with distinct tastes, finds synesthesia to be problematic and discomforting. For him, “nearly everything has a flavor…the United States tastes like Starbursts.” (Winter) One instance when synesthesia was problematic for him when he was a teenager and refused to date girls whose names produced an unpleasant taste.

One study that I found particularly interesting was conducted by Ramachandran and Azoulai who tested if apparent motion could be created for a grapheme-color synesthete who is a lower synesthete meaning that “the color evoked seems to be a genuine sensory experience; the subject claims to ’see’ the color, not merely imagine it.” (Ramachandran, V., Azoulai, S. (2006). Perception. Synthetically induced colors evoke apparent motion perception, 35, 1567.) The subject, JC, was shown a figure with 5s and 2s. The first matrix was constructed mostly of 2s, but had a vertical column of 5s embedded within the image. In the second frame the vertical column of 5s was shifted to the right. JC was able to detect the bar moving left or right depending on the particular trial. For him, it appeared as if the bar was in motion. This is called apparent motion, which is “the illusion of movement seen when two spatially separated objects are presented sequentially in rapid succession.” (Ramachandran, Azoulai) JC was able to correctly identify the direction of movement on 100% of the trials. The researchers compared JCs performance to control subjects who were normal, healthy individuals without synesthesia. These subjects identified the direction of movement at chance level. From this simple experiment, the researchers were able to conclude that “colors evoked entirely in the mind of a synesthete can provide an input to motion perception even though the colors do not exist physically on the retina.”(Ramachandran, Azoulai) Recent research using fMRIs indicate that brain activity increases in area V4 when grapheme-color synesthetes are shown images such as these. (Ramachandran, Azoulai) Further research must be conducted to see if MT, the brain region associated with motion, is also activated.

Although synesthesia is a rare condition, it is very fascinating and intriguing. The perceptual world for a synesthete would be entirely different that normal functioning humans could imagine. A world in which the senses collide, intruding on everyday activities, would be the norm. More research must be conducted to learn more about the direct causes of the different types of synesthesia.

Treatment for Strabismus

Strabismus, which we briefly discussed in class on Monday, is a misalignment of the two eyes and can cause a lazy eye in which one eye dominates vision. About five percent of children have some degree of strabismus (Optometrists Network “Strabismus”. 2008. http://www.strabismus.org/). Although this disorder is more common in children, it can also occur later in life and affects men and women equally. (Health Scout Network “Strabismus”. 2001. http://www.healthscout.com/ency/68/534/main.html#CausesandRiskFactorsofStrabismus) Since the brain controls the twelve eye muscles which determine alignment between the eyes, children who have disorders affecting the brain often have strabismus including Down’s syndrome and cerebral palsy. (Health Scout Network “Strabismus” 2001 http://www.healthscout.com/ency/68/534/main.html#CausesandRiskFactorsofStrabismus ) Eye misalignment can have many causes including “the need for glasses”, “maldevelopment of the eye or even tumors”. (Health Scout Network “Strabismus”. 2001. http://www.healthscout.com/ency/68/534/main.html#CausesandRiskFactorsofStrabismus)

Strabismus is not cured on its own. Therefore, proper treatment and therapy needs to be implemented at an early stage in order to ensure healthy vision. Major types of treatment include eye glasses, vision therapy, drug treatments, and surgery. If the misalignment of the two eyes is only slight then glasses may be a simple treatment. The recommended treatment depends on the degree of severity and the cause. However, treatment goals are similar including restoring retinal disparity in order to determine relative depth information and prevent binocular rivalry. Vision therapy helps individuals suffering from strabismus by teaching the brain to control “eye alignment, eye teaming, eye focusing abilities, eye movements and/or visual processing” (Cooper, Jeffrey & Cooper, Rachel. “All About Strabismus”. http://www.strabismus.org/strabismus_cure.html#visiontherapy) If amblyopia, double vision, occurs due to strabismus, the doctor may recommend wearing an eye patch over the healthy eye so that the lazy eye has a chance to develop. Other forms of vision therapy include eye exercises. According to one website, “In vision therapy programs, optometrists look at the neurological control system and thus are treating the whole visual-motor system and altering reflexive behavior, which results in a lasting cure.” (Cooper, Jeffrey & Cooper, Rachel. “All About Strabismus”. http://www.strabismus.org/strabismus_cure.html#visiontherapy) Drug treatments are usually in the form of eye drops and include atropine and miotics, which affect eye muscles that are responsible for controlling the pupil and the ability of the eye to focus. ((Web MD “Strabismus Treatment Overview”. 2008. http://children.webmd.com/tc/strabismus-treatment-overview) Atropine can be used as a substitute for the eye patch because it causes blurred vision, which would be dropped in the good eye forcing the person to use their weaker eye. On the other hand, eye surgery may be another option in which case the surgeon makes an incision into the eye and corrects the eye muscle that is not working properly by changing its length or position. (Web MD “Strabismus Treatment Overview”. 2008. http://children.webmd.com/tc/strabismus-treatment-overview) Regardless of the treatment suggested by one’s doctor, it is always necessary to see a physician right away. In only very rare cases is strabismus cured on its own.

Colors Affect Mood!

Colors affect our lives in more ways than we can imagine. We often take for granted colors, which are really just the brain’s interpretation of the visual world around us and differ among individuals. Most of the time we are not even conscious of the different colors in our surroundings. However, among the many purposes of colors, they can alter moods, increase concentration, and symbolize different meanings. Some colors are interpreted differently across cultures. Red symbolizes passion and love and “stimulates a faster heartbeat and breathing” (Castro, Gaby. “Do Colors Affect Our Every Day Lives?” http://fhsenglish109.wordpress.com/2007/02/21/do-colors-affect-our-every-day-lives-by-gaby-castro/). Some studies show that red cars are pulled over more often because it is an easily identified target. In restaurants, red is often used in foods because it increases appetite. In India, red is considered to be pure and is often worn in weddings (“Color and Mood” http://iit.bloomu.edu/vthc/Design/psychology.htm). Blue is associated with sadness as well as peacefulness. Bedrooms are often painted blue in order to reduce stress and create tranquility. Wearing blue to a job interview is supposedly a good idea because it portrays that you will be loyal and reliable to the company (Castro). Weightlifters also perform best while in a room painted blue (Castro). For Chinese people, blue is related to immortality, while in the Middle East blue is considered protective (“Colors and Moods” http://iit.bloomu.edu/vthc/Design/psychology.htm). The color white represents purity in the United States and for this reason is worn by brides to represent their virginity. Doctors usually wear white because it is associated as being sterile. According to Castro, “Black implies submission. Priests wear black to signify submission to God.” In the United States, black is usually worn at funerals to symbolize that one is mourning for the deceased person. If one were to wear a bright color, such as orange to a funeral, it would be looked down upon because orange is associated with happiness and optimism. Black, on the other hand, shows that we feel sorrow for the loss. Black is also associated with darkness and evil. Black cats are believed by some to cause curses, while the term “Black Market” refers to illegal transactions in the marketplace. Green represents nature and is often used in bedrooms to calm and relax people. Green is also the color of money in the United States and can be linked to greed and wealth. Yellow is related to sunshine and happiness and draws attention. Because it “enhances concentration”, yellow is used for legal pads (Castro). Yellow is “perfect for kitchens, dining rooms, and bathrooms, where happy color is energizing and uplifting” (“Room Color and How It Affects Your Mood” http://freshome.com/2007/04/17/room-color-and-how-it-affects-your-mood/). Yellow roses are a symbol of friendship, rather than a red rose which we associate with romance. However, yellow also causes people to become angry and babies cry more in yellow painted rooms, perhaps because it is the most fatiguing color for the eyes. (“Room Color and How It Affects Your Mood” http://freshome.com/2007/04/17/room-color-and-how-it-affects-your-mood/) As you can see, colors have many different associations and affect our moods in varying ways. This is only a very small compilation of the different ways that color contributes to our daily lives and makes life more enjoyable.

Facial Expressions

Facial expressions give us all sorts of visual cues about people.  As discussed in class, Paul Ekman’s study on facial expressions gave evidence for six universally recognized facial expressions.  I am currently enrolled in the psychology class Emotion and we just learned and read about Paul Ekman’s study. 

Each of the six different emotions of happiness, sadness, anger, disgust, fear, and surprise has their own unique facial expressions that let us know what the person is feeling.  For instance, when a person is angry we can see it on their face: the eyes get smaller from squinting, the eyebrows get closer, and the lips frown.  These changes in facial muscles give us visual cues that register in our memory and we are able to decipher the emotion that the person is feeling.  Facial expressions of emotion serve an adaptational function because they help us communicate with those around us.  For instance, when someone is feeling sad you can see it on their face because tears roll down from their eyes, their lips frown, and they have a general look of upset.  This lets us know that the person is in need and we usually offer our support in helping them cope with the situation.  Without vision, we would be unable to recognize these cues that the face provides us and would be at a disadvantage in terms of survival. 

According to Ekman, there are many subtle clues given by facial expressions that people miss.  The first he terms “micro expressions”, which are very short, “lasting about 0.2 seconds.” (Ekman, Paul. Student BMJ: Emotions revealed. April 2004.)  He claims that “everyone who shows a micro expression is trying, consciously or subconsciously, to conceal an emotion”.  The other type is subtle expressions that are not as short, but are very faint, and “occur when an emotion is just beginning, is slight, or when a person is trying to conceal it”. (Ekman, Paul. Student BMJ: Emotions revealed. April 2004.)  If we are able to recognize both subtle and non-subtle facial expressions we will be better prepared in dealing with life situations and helping those around us.

Split Brain

On Monday we briefly talked about split brain patients in which the corpus callosum connecting the left and right hemisphere is severed.  The corpus callosum is “one structure in the brain involved in the exchange and integration of information from one part to the next”. (“Split-brain technique”. Encyclopedia of Psychology (2008). <http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_g2699/is_0003/ai_2699000327>).  Although this procedure is rarely done, and only in very patients with severe epileptic seizures, there is much information we can and have learned from these patients. 

When a split brain patient is presented with an image or word in his or her left visual field, he or she is not able to identify in words what they saw.  For instance, if a word such as “cat” is presented on the screen, they are not able to say it.  But, if they are presented with a pen and paper they are able to draw a picture of a cat and then say the word “cat”.  This problem does not occur when the image or word is presented in the patient’s right visual field.  The reason is that the right hemisphere is unable to communicate with the left and is therefore unable to name the object since it is the left hemisphere that produces speech and language.  Since left and right visual fields go to the opposite hemisphere (images in the left hemisphere are processed in the right hemisphere), when a brain is “split” information cannot be communicated between the two hemispheres . The information from the left visual field goes to the disconnected right hemisphere.  However, the person’s left hand is able to draw out the image even though his right hemisphere cannot produce the language word.  This indicates that the right hemisphere processes the image, but since it is unable to communicate with the speech producing left hemisphere it cannot reproduce the word. You can see a demonstration of this experiment on the following website:

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ZMLzP1VCANo&feature=related. 

            Although split brain patients are unable to correctly verbalize a stimulus presented to the left visual field, most of their daily activities are unimpeded.  These patients do, however, make up for their shortcomings.  According to the Encyclopedia of Psychology, “a split-brain patient might turn the head when focusing on an object; thereby stimulating both hemispheres. Further, these patients use cross-cuing in which they invoke as many different modalities, like vision, audition, and touch, to help them make sense of their world.” (“Split-brain technique”. Encyclopedia of Psychology (2008). <http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_g2699/is_0003/ai_2699000327>). 

Effects of Circadian Rhythms in Blind People

Sleep disturbances in the blind may be due to the inability of circadian rhythms to function properly. Circadian rhythms are “the patterns of activity that occur on a 24-hour cycle” and “are important biological regulators in virtually every living creature” (“Shedding Light on Circadian Rhythms”. November 25, 1999. <http://www.hhmi.org/news/takahashi.html>). Sunlight is responsible for reversing the clock on a daily basis. Therefore, blind people are unable to adjust their circadian rhythms because they cannot decipher day from night. In other words, “the transmission of ocular light from the retina to their circadian clock is impaired” (Arendt, J., Skene, D. “Circadian rhythm sleep disorders in the blind and their treatment with melatonin”. April 7, 2007. <http://lib.bioinfo.pl/pmid:17420154>). The result is symptoms similar to jet lag, which occur in healthy individuals when traveling, including daytime sleepiness, poor quality sleep at night, and reduced attentiveness while awake. For the blind, this condition is perpetual and results in a reduced quality of life.

While circadian rhythms are dependent on light, there are also other factors that affect it as well, including noise and melatonin. Therefore, the blind rely on hearing to develop more normal functioning sleep cycles. For instance, at night there are far fewer noises in our environment because most people are in bed sleeping, while during the day noises are much more prevalent. This poses a problem for those living in big cities since noise is almost always present. Currently, “melatonin has been shown to correct the underlying circadian rhythm abnormality as well as improve sleep and reduce daytime napping” (Arendt, J., Skene, D. “Circadian rhythm sleep disorders in the blind and their treatment with melatonin”. April 7, 2007. <http://lib.bioinfo.pl/pmid:17420154>). Through the use of melatonin therapy, many blind patients have regained normal sleeping habits. Current research is being conducted by Dr. Guy Warman in New Zealand with the objective to discover how melatonin is used to treat disturbances in the circadian rhythms of blind people. (“Study to investigate sleep disturbances in blind and vision-impaired”. October 25, 2005. <http://www.auckland.ac.nz/uoa/about/news/articles/2005/10/sleep_disturbances.cfm>) The findings should help physicians determine the correct dose of melatonin to prescribe for patients based on their specific needs.

Pupil Size and Sexual Attraction

After listening to Professor Boucher talk about pupil size on Wednesday, I wanted to learn more about how it affects our sexual attraction.  In everyday conversations, I hardly consciously ever notice the pupil size of others.  Therefore, sexual attraction based on pupil size must be, to some extent, on a subconscious level.  But by paying attention to this simple-to-detect body signal, we are able to determine the likelihood of attraction.

A study conducted by Selina Tombs and Irwin Silverman found a positive relationship of attraction to pupil size for both males and females.  However, it was found that females had “consistent preferences for either medium or large pupils in males.” (Silverman, I., Tombs, S. “Pupillometry: A Sexual Attraction Approach.” Science Direct  (2004) <http://www.sciencedirect.com/science?_ob=ArticleURL&_udi=B6T6H-4CTB5VH- 2&_user=86629&_rdoc=1&_fmt=&_orig=search&_sort=d&view=c&_acct=C000006878&_version=1&_urlVersion=0&_userid=86629&md5=4bdcb32625d3fb1b6001830890ee7e71>.)  The researchers also found that females who were attracted to large pupils preferred dating “bad boys”.  Perhaps women who are more sexually active and open prefer large pupils.

Another study, conducted by Hess and Polt, found that after showing subjects photographs of female models with artificially enhanced pupil size, male subjects’ pupils unconsciously enlarged as well.  (Chandler, D. “Notes on ‘The Gaze’.” http://www.aber.ac.uk/media/Documents/gaze/gaze03.html.) Because men are more attracted to women with larger pupil size, and vice versa, many photographers will enhance the pupils of models in magazines in order to increase sexual attraction to others. 

A joke made by a college professor about pupil size relates to the topic of sexual attraction.  The male professor asks a coed student “to name the only part of the body that can normally enlarge to eight times its minimum size.  The student, blushing, demurs.  Another student volunteers the correct answer: the pupil of the eye.  Turning back to the first student, the professor says he can make three deductions about her: ‘One, you didn’t read your assignment. Two, you have a filthy mind.  And three, you’re in for one hell of a disappointment.’” (Janisse, M. P. “Pupillometry The Psychology of the Pupillary Response.” Journal of Personality Assessment. 1977)

Treatments for Broca’s Aphasia

The most common treatment today for Broca’s aphasia is therapy, in particular speech therapy.  Currently there are no known medical or surgical procedures.  Until scientists gain more knowledge about the brain and aphasia itself, we will be unable to rely on medicine to improve patient’s conditions. As I was searching the Internet for common treatments, one particular medicine struck me as peculiar.  A drug called xtendlife is said to be a “natural formula to protect your brain and nervous system” (http://neurology.health-cares.net/aphasia-treatment.php).  This website claims that xtendlife “helps your body to make up for depleted resources, environmental and industrial pollutions… to provide your nervous system with the nourishment it requires”.  The complete bogus nature of this advertisement proves that there are many false treatments for aphasia and patients need to be wary of using the internet as a reliable source.

 Speech pathologists are available and help patients read, follow directions, listen, and repeat words.  Another common therapy is computer-based.  A computer-aid program called Lingraphica helps those with aphasia by presenting them with a picture and the name underneath along with a human voice pronouncing the word.  For instance, a picture of a drink, apple and spaghetti is defined as food.  The patient is able to create phrases using the pictures as the program puts the sentence together.  The goal is to aid communication from the patient to others.  More information on this program can be found on: http://www.aphasia.com/patients/index.aspx.  A final treatment that I found was music therapy, which is said to improve communication skills.  According to an article by Dr. Shelagh Brumfitt, music therapy “may make some changes to the amount of speech and language, the clarity of the speech, the speed of speech, the loudness, the amount of breath the individual can use or the individual’s mood.” (Brumfitt, Shelagh. Music Therapy and Aphasia. <http://www.aphasianow.org/index.php?pageid=Dr_Shelagh_Brumfitt>.)

Overall, more research and studies need to be conducted in order to help those suffering from Broca’s aphasia.  Poor communication skills due to impaired language production are a huge burden on these patients.  Therefore, it is urgent that we gain more information in order to find more effective treatments to alleviate the burden.

Seeing Without Vision?

After hearing about Ben Underwood, the blind boy with extraordinary hearing, I wanted to learn more. Ben has his own website: www.benunderwood.com, which includes information about him written by his mother, his favorite links, his blog, and contact information. A quote from Ben himself shows his outlook on life, “I’m not blind…I just can’t see.” Ben does not let his blindness get in the way of his life. He can do almost every activity of a normal teenage boy, including roller blading, playing video games, and biking. But, on top of this, he has also been a motivational speaker, started writing a novel in fourth grade, and wants to invent and design video games.

CBS filmed and interviewed Ben to find out more information. The video can be found on YouTube: http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=DpBm4KoWsrY .

Although Ben does not have a sense of vision, he uses hearing, touch, and taste. After the surgery to remove his eyes due to cancer, Ben’s mother told him he could still see with his hands, his mouth, and his nose. She has never treated Ben as anything but normal. While walking down the street, Ben can identify trash cans, fire hydrants, and cars. He makes a sharp click that bounces off of objects, which tells him what the object is and how far away he is from it. Ben clicks down in order to hear the sharpest echo. He is the only person in the world who sees using echolocation. Just as people with vision who are able to detect objects through the light reflection, Ben is able to use sound through echoes to determine the identity of objects, their size, and their location.

Dolphins use the same technique as Ben to navigate through the ocean. Dolphins also make a clicking noise whose echo bounces off objects in the ocean, including other species and rocks. This helps dolphins to hunt their prey and navigate by determining the type of object and distance.

Ben’s sense of echolocation has allowed him to live a normal life. By studying Ben’s use of clicking, doctors and therapists may be better able to help others who have lost their sense of sight.

 

Pheromones, Scent, & Sexuality

On Monday, we talked about pheromones and their role in our sex lives. I wanted to research this topic further and learn about what others had to say about it. The first article I found was written by Deb Levine on CNN.com, which talked about the possible implications of pheromones for our lives (http://www.cnn.com/HEALTH/women/9906/25/sexuality.scent/). For instance, it is thought that pheromones could be used as fertility treatment for couples who are unable to conceive on their own, as well as contraceptives for those who do not want to become pregnant. Pheromones could also be used to increase sexual drive in combination with therapy.

We also talked about pheromones that were bottled and sold, but discussed how this needs more scientific evidence to back up. A study conducted by Cutler, Zacher, and Genovese titled “Evidence That Sex Attractant Pheromones Effects Strengthen With Continued Use” provides evidence that pheromones increase sexual relations. According to their data, “a greater proportion of pheromone than placebo users increased over their own individual baseline weekly frequency in prospectively recorded sociosexual behaviors” (Cutler, W., Genovese, E., and Zacher, M. “Evidence That Sex Attractant Pheromone Effects Strengthen With Continued Use.” Fertility and Sterility 84 S747-S745.). For fertile men and women, the biggest effect on sexual behavior was increased sexual intercourse, whereas for postmenopausal women, there was an increase in “petting, kissing, and affection”. The study showed that sexual effects increase with daily usage of pheromones. The way the experimenters increased pheromone usage was by creating a pheromone formula that was used as a fragrance additive, called Athena. However, it is still important to note that more scientific evidence must be found before Athena and other fragrance containing pheromones can be sold.

An interesting article published by Psychology Today discussed that our sense of smell related to sexuality is a very selective process. We do not find everyone attractive based on how many pheromones they produce, but rather it is related to genes. It is suggested that we usually smell the best to people whose genetic immunity system is most different than ours. Therefore, pheromones could play a huge role in our survival as a species not only by increasing our sexual drive, but also by making the most attractive person the best suited to produce healthy offspring. “The magic scent is not some romantic elixir but the aromatic effluence of our immune system.” (Furlow, Bryant. “The Smell of Love” Psychology Today. 1996.) Another interesting idea introduced by Furlow is that the Eskimo kiss is used to mutually smell one another, showing the significance of our sense of scent.